نگاهی به علل شکل گیری کودتای 28 مرداد 1332 به بهانه شصت و ششمین سالگرد آن 

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28 مرداد 1332 در تاریخ ایران روز بسیار مهمی است. روزی كه به درستی می‌توان تاريخ معاصر ايران را به قبل و بعد از آن تقسيم كرد، روزی كه وقايع و رويدادهای پيش آمده درآن، پايه‌گذار سرنوشت ايران طی چند دهه بعدی شد. وقايع و رويدادهايی كه بدون شک با هماهنگی و همكاری و همراهی سرويس‌های مخفی آمريكايی و بريتانيايی در ايران، شكل گرفته و به انجام رسيد. آنچه در پی می‌آيد معطوف به بيان مختصر علل به وجود آمدن رويداد 28 مرداد است. فرقی نمی‌كند ما آن وقايع را چه بناميم، هر چه گوييم و بناميم در آنچه طی سال‌های 1332 -1327 و به ويژه در طول دوره نخست‌‌وزيری دكتر محمد مصدق (1332-1330) گذشت، تفاوتی ايجاد نمی كند. وقايعی كه مجموعا علت و علل اصلی رويداد 28مرداد بوده و در واقع درس‌هایی هستند كه می‌توان از علت به وجود آمدن آن تحول عظيم در ايران و شكل‌گيری عصر جديدی در تاريخ ايران آموخت. نهضت ضد‌استعماری خلع‌يد از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس كه به طور خاص از سال 1327 آغاز شده و پس از فراز و نشيب‌های زيادی به موفقيت رسيد، با شروع دوره نخست‌‌وزيری دكتر محمد مصدق در سال 1330 وارد مرحله نوينی شده و ابعاد بسيار گسترده‌تری يافت. خواسته‌های به حق ايران در رابطه با نفت، آن كشور را وارد منازعه گسترده‌ای با بريتانيا و سپس آمريكا كرد. اين منازعه تنها دارای ابعاد اقتصادی نبود. نفوذ و حضور طولانی‌مدت بريتانيا در ايران، سبب تبديل آن منازعه به يک درگيری بسيار گسترده داخلی و خارجی بين دولت و نيروهای سياسی برآمده از نهضت با بريتانيا شد. علاوه بر آن ايالات متحده آمريكا نيز به مرور زمان مشاركت فعال‌تری در منازعه مذكور ايفا كرد به نحوی كه در ايام مقارن با مرداد 1332، آمريكا به دلايل متعددی، ايفاگر نقش محوری‌تری نسبت به بريتانيا در اين موضوع شد. البته در اين ميان كشورهای ديگر (همچون شوروی) با سكوت خود يا (نظير عراق) با افزايش توليد نفت، نيز وجود داشتند كه در روند رويدادهای مذكور بی‌تاثير نبودند. اما آنچه مهم است اين موضوع است كه منازعات خارجی دولت دكتر مصدق با بريتانيا و سپس با آمريكا از اواخر سال 1330 و اوايل سال 1331 از ماهيت نفتی خارج شده و به موضوعات مهم‌تری وارد شده بود. ديگر موضوع اصلی منازعات خارجی نفت و خلع‌يد از انگليسی‌ها نبود بلكه كاملا آشكار بود كه بحث در مورد فضای كلی حاكم بر ايران، تكامل و تعميق نهضت ناسيوناليستی و ضد‌استعماری ايران در حوزه‌های ديگر، الگو شدن آن نهضت و دستاوردهای آن در كشورهای منطقه تا شمال آفريقا و بالاخره عملكرد دولت دكتر مصدق و رفتارهای آن دولت در عرصه داخلی و منطقه‌ای است. پيروزی نهضت ضد‌استعماری خلع‌يد از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس و روی كار آمدن دولت محصول آن نهضت، دكتر مصدق، در ابتدا چشم‌انداز بسيار دلفريبی را در مقابل نيروها و جريانات، احزاب و گروه‌های سياسی و مديران و دست‌اندركاران مطبوعاتی ايجاد كرد و همگلان را به اين باور متمايل ساخت كه به زودی مشكلات و معظلات اقتصادی، سياسی و اجتماعی ايران حل شده و جامعه به خواسته‌ها و آمال خود رسيده و از دستاوردهای پيروزی نهضت بهره‌مند خواهد شد. اين خوش‌باوری موجود در ايران، با شروع انتخابات دوره هفدهم مجلس شورای ملی در زمستان 1330 متزلزل شد. كم‌كم نزاع بين ياران و هم‌پيمانان و رهبران نهضت با يكديگر آغاز شد و به تبع آن در ميان جامعه نيز گروه‌های مختلف وارد درگيری با يكديگر شدند. رفتار دولت‌های بريتانيا و آمريكا و عوامل داخلی آنها و نيز وضعيت اقتصادی خراب جامعه، سبب گسترش هرچه بيشتر درگيری‌ها و به وجود آمدن یک بحران عظيم داخلی شد. به شكلی كه از اواسط سال 1331 به بعد آنچه در فضای سياسی داخلی ايران و نزد گروه‌ها، جريانات و احزاب اهميت يافت، منازعات داخلی بود. تداوم اين وضعيت در ماه‌های بعد، فضای سياسی داخلی ايران را به سمتی برد كه در آن چيزی جز جنگ و خشونت معنا نيافت. بدين‌ترتيب جامعه آماده یک تحول جدی شد.

در یک جمع‌بندی از مهم‌ترين شاخص‌ها و مسائل تاثيرگذار در سال‌های 1332- 1327 كه در واقع علل و عوامل شكل‌گيری واقعه 28 مرداد محسوب می شوند می‌توان به نكات ذيل اشاره كرد:

نكته اول: ساده انديشي در مقوله نفت: پس از خلع‌يد از شركت نفت، باور عمومی در ايران بر اين بود كه ابعاد درگيری نفتی بين ايران و بريتانيا تنها در چارچوب روابط بين ايران و انگليس است. در حالی كه در روابط اقتصادی در آن دوره نفت ايران ابعادی فراتر از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس يافته و مقوله توليد، عرضه و فروش آن، به كشورهای ديگری نيز ارتباط می‌يافت كه عموما متاثر از فضای سياسی بين‌المللی يا در اردوگاه بريتانيا و آمريكا قرار داشتند يا مايل به درافتادن با آن دو كشور نبودند. به طور مثال در مقوله توليد نفت دولتمردان ايرانی احتمالا فكر توليد انبوه و خارج از رويه نفت در عراق در سال‌های 1330 تا 1334 را نكرده بودند يا در مقوله فروش نفت، آن مقامات حساب و يژه‌ای را برای درآمدهای كسب شده از محل فروش نفت به كشورهای ديگر و به ويژه كشورها بلوک شرق باز كرده بودند كه اين موضوع هيچگاه تحقق پيدا نكرد.

نكته دوم: نهضت ناسيوناليستی و ضداستعماری محور اصلی تقابل: نفت و مقوله خلع‌يد از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس، تنها يكی از وجوه نهضت ناسيوناليستی و ضداستعماری بود كه از اوايل دهه 1320 در ايران آغاز شده و به مرور زمان عمق و گسترش يافت. ابعاد مختلف آن نهضت كه بر پايه توسعه سياسی از طريق عواملی همچون آزادیهای قلم و بيان، پارلمان و آزادی انتخابات معنا می‌يافت، در طول زمان با گذر از موانع مختلف به دستورهای مهمی رسيد كه از آن جمله می‌توان به خلع‌يد از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس، برگزاری انتخابات‌های نسبتا مناسب مجالس قانونگذاری، آزادی مطبوعات و فعاليت گروه‌ها، انجمن‌ها و احزاب و بالاخره تشكيل دولت دكتر محمد مصدق اشاره كرد. آن دستاوردها هریک به نوبه خود تاثير بزرگی بر تعميق ابعاد نهضت باقی گذاردند. تكرار چنين الگویی در ابعاد منطقه‌ای، به منزله فاجعه بزرگی برای قدرت‌های بزرگ آن روزگار محسوب می شد. به وجود آمدن نهضتی مشابه در ديگر كشور منطقه تبعات بسيار سنگينی برای بريتانيا، آمريكا و ديگر كشورهای اروپایی دارای منافع عمده در خاورميانه به همراه داشت. چنانكه پيروزی انقلاب مصر و روی كار آمدن جمال‌عبدالناصر در آن كشور و نيز كودتای عبدالكريم قاسم در عراق بحران‌های عظيمی را در خاورميانه ايجاد كرد. بنابراين از سال 1331 به بعد هدف اصلی قدرت‌های بزرگ در ايران، ديگر نفت نبود و حتی مقوله دولت دكتر مصدق و ضديت با آن نيز درواقع پلی برای تخريب آثار نهضت ناسوناليستی و ضداستعماری ايران بود.

نكته سوم: اختلافات و منازعات داخلی: گفته شد كه پس از برگزاری انتخابات دوره هفدهم مجلس شورای ملی در زمستان 1330، اختلاف ميان جناح‌ها، رجال و شخصيت‌های نهضت شروع و به تدريج شديد و شديدتر شد. در اين ميان حتی واقعه 30 تير 1331 نيز نتوانست مانعی برای گسترش آن اختلافات شود. در ماه‌های پايانی دولت دكتر مصدق كار اختلافات داخلی به جايی كشيده شده بود كه تمام حواس و توجه مقامات دولتی، رجال و شخصيت‌های سياسی و مذهبی، گروه‌ها و احزاب را به خود جلب كرده و روزی نبود كه موضوع جديدی برای شعله‌ورتر شدن آتش درگيريی ها از سوی یک طرف مطرح نشده و طرف مقابل نيز خود را برای دادن پاسخی شديدتر آماده نسازد.

نكته چهارم: بی‌اعتبار شدن رهبران و شخصيت‌های نهضت:منازعات و كشمكش‌های داخلی اولين تاثير خود را در بی‌اعتبار شدن رهبران، شخصيت‌ها و جريانات سياسی گذارد؛ كسانی كه نقش مهمی در تكامل نهضت و پيروزی آن بر عهده داشتند، اين پديده شوم سبب بی‌اعتبار شدن آن رهبران در نزد مردم شد.

نكته پنجم: بی توجهی به تغييرات در صحنه بين‌المللی: طبيعی است هنگامی كه تمام فكر رهبران و مقامات یک كشور به درگيريیهای داخلی و پاسخگويی به حملات مخالفين خود در داخل معطوف شده باشد، توجهی به تغييرات اساسی در صحنه بين‌المللی نمی‌كنند. مراحل پايانی خلع‌يد از شركت نفت ايران و انگليس در سال‌های 1329 -1327 مقارن با شروع جنگ كره شد. پيروزی در اين جنگ اولويت نخست كشورهای غربی در آن ايام محسوب می‌شد و بدين لحاظ تمام قوای خود را برای به پايان رساندن موفقيت‌آميز آن به كار بستند. در چنين حالتی طبعا ايران و مشكل ايران برای آن كشورها در درجه دوم اهميت قرار گرفته و سياستمداران غربی و به‌ويژه آمريكایی‌ها تلاش می‌كردند باری به هر جهت اوضاع ايران را حتی‌المقدور كنترل كنند. اما با پايان يافتن جنگ كره در تير 1332 تعيين تكليف ايران، به مسئله درجه اول غرب تبديل شد و در چنين حالتی، بديهی است غرب به رهبری آمريكا و بريتانيا، در ايران حالت تهاجمی كامل گرفته و تلاش كنند با استفاده از ظرفيت‌های داخلی و بدون تحریک جدی شوروی، به اهداف خود برسند.

نكته ششم: عدم چاره‌انديشی برای مواجهه با وضعيت جديد: متاسفانه به دليل مشغوليت شديد سياستمداران و مقامات ايرانی به درگيری‌های داخلی، آنها نتوانستند برنامه يا طرح خاصی برای مقابله با وضعيت جديد پس از پايان جنگ كره ارائه كرده و از آن مهم‌تر مردم را نسبت به آن رويداد برای ايران آگاه كرده و آنها را برای مقابله با تبعات آن رويداد در ايران آماده كنند. در مجموع با توجه به نكات پيش گفته، آنچه در 28 مرداد 1332 روی داد، نمی‌توانست زياد دور از ذهن و تصادفی باشد و طرح موضوع‌هايی از جمله: «اختلافات دكتر مصدق و آيت‌الله كاشانی»، «حزب توده و عملكرد آن» و بسياری از اينگونه مسائل تنها هنگامی می‌تواند ابعاد حقيقی خود را آشكار سازد كه چارچوب كلی و جهت اصلی مباحث روشن شده باشد وگرنه تمركز روی مسائل فرعی مذكورسبب انحراف اذهان از مسائل كلی و علل و عوامل اصلی و بنيانی آنچه در 28 مرداد روی داد، می‌شود.

 

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